Chapter 1: Critical Thinking: Why It's Important

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical Thinking in Everyday Life

Cognitive Development in College Students

Characteristics of a Good Critical Thinker

Analytical Skills

Effective Communication

Research and Inquiry Skills

Flexibility and Tolerance for Ambiguity

Open-minded Skepticism

Creative Problem Solving

Attention, Mindfulness, and Curiosity

Collaborative Learning

Critical Thinking and Self-Development

Living the Self-Examined Life

Developing a Rational Life Plan

Facing Challenges

The Importance of Self-Esteem

Critical Thinking in a Democracy

Barriers to Critical Thinking

The Three-Tier Model of Thinking

Resistance

Types of Resistance

Narrow-mindedness

Rationalization and Doublethink

Cognitive and Social Dissonance

Stress as a Barrier

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Affirmative Action in College Admissions

Chapter 2: Reason and Emotion

What is Reason?

Traditional Views of Reason

Gender, Age, and Reason

Dreams and Problem Solving

The Role of Emotion in Critical Thinking

Cultural Attitudes Toward Emotion

Emotional Intelligence and the Positive Effects of Emotion

Negative Effects of Emotion

Integrating Emotion and Reason

Artificial Intelligence, Reason, and Emotion

The Field of Artificial Intelligence

Can Computers Think?

Can Computers Feel Emotion?

Faith and Reason

Fideism: Faith Transcends Reason

Rationalism: Religious Beliefs and Reason

Critical Rationalism: Faith and Reason are Compatible

Religion, Spirituality and Real-Life Decisions

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on on Reason and Proofs for the Existence of God

Chapter 3: Language and Communication

What is Language?

Functions of Language

Nonverbal Language

Definitions

Denotative and Connotative Meanings

Stipulative Definitions

Lexical Definitions

Precising Definitions

Persuasive Definitions

Evaluating Definitions

Five Criteria

Verbal Disputes Based on Ambiguous Definitions

Communication Styles

Individual Styles of Communication

Sex and Racial Differences in Communication Style

Cultural Differences in Communication Styles

The Use of Language to Manipulate

Emotive Language

Rhetorical Devices

Deception and Lying

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Free Speech Zones on College Campuses

Chapter 4: Knowledge, Evidence and Errors in Thinking

Human Knowledge and Its Limitations

Rationalism and Empiricism

The Structure of the Mind

Evaluating Evidence

Direct Experience and False Memories

The Unreliability of Hearsay and Anecdotal Evidence

Experts and Credibility

Evaluating Evidence for a Claim

Research Resources

Cognitive and Perceptual Errors in Thinking

Perceptual Errors

Misperception of Random Data

Memorable Events Error

Probability Error

Self-Serving Biases

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

Social Errors and Biases

"One of Us/One of Them" Error

Societal Expectations

Group Pressure and Conformity

Diffusion of Responsibility

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Evaluating Existence for the Existence of Unidentified Flying Objects

Chapter 5: Informal Fallacies

What is a Fallacy?

Fallacies of Ambiguity

Equivocation

Amphiboly

Fallacy of Accent

Fallacy of Division

Fallacy of Composition

Fallacies of Relevance

Personal Attack (Ad Hominem) Fallacy

Appeal to Force (Scare Tactics)

Appeal to Pity

Popular Appeal

Appeal to Ignorance

Hasty Generalization

Straw Man

Red Herring

Fallacies Involving Unwarranted Assumptions

Begging the Question

Inappropriate Appeal to Authority

Loaded Question

False Dilemma

Questionable Cause

Slippery Slope

Naturalistic Fallacy

Strategies for Avoiding Fallacies

Critical Thinking Issues: Perspectives on Gun Control

Chapter 6: Recognizing, Analyzing, and Constructing Arguments

What is an Issue?

Identifying an Issue

Asking the Right Questions

Recognizing an Argument

Distinguishing Between Argumentation and Rhetoric

Types of Arguments

Propositions

Premises and Conclusions

Nonarguments: Explanations and Conditional Statements

Breaking Down and Diagramming Arguments

Breaking Down an Argument into Propositions

Identifying the Premise(s) and Conclusion in Complex Arguments

Diagramming an Argument

Evaluating Arguments

Clarity: Is the Argument Clear and Unambiguous?

Credibility: Are The Premises Supported by Evidence?

Relevance: Are The Premises Relevant to the Conclusion?

Completeness: Are There Any Unstated Premises and Conclusions?

Soundness: Are the Premises True and Do They Support the Conclusion?

Constructing an Argument

Steps for Constructing an Argument

Using Arguments in Making Real-Life Decisions

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Same Sex Marriage

Chapter 7: Inductive Arguments

What is an Inductive Argument?

The Use of Inductive Reasoning in Everyday Life

Generalization

Using Polls, Surveys, and Sampling to Make Generalizations

Applying Generalizations to Particular Cases

Evaluating Inductive Arguments Using Generalization

Analogies

Uses of Analogies

Arguments Based on Analogies

Analogies as Tools for Refuting Arguments

Evaluating Inductive Arguments Based on Analogies

Causal Arguments

Causal Relationships

Correlations

Establishing Causal Relationships

Causal Arguments in Public Policy and Everyday Decision Making

Evaluating Causal Arguments

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Legalizing Marijuana

Chapter 8: Deductive Arguments

What is a Deductive Argument?

Deductive Reasoning and Syllogisms

Valid and Invalid Arguments

Sound and Unsound Arguments

Types of Deductive Arguments

Arguments by Elimination

Arguments Based on Mathematics

Arguments from Definition

Hypothetical Syllogisms

Modus Ponens

Modus Tollens

Chain Arguments

Evaluating Hypothetical Syllogisms for Validity

Categorical Syllogisms

Standard-Form Categorical Syllogisms

Quantity and Quality

Diagramming Propositions with Venn Diagrams

Using Venn Diagrams to Evaluate Categorical Syllogisms

Translating Ordinary Arguments into Standard Form

Rewriting Everyday Propositions in Standard-Form

Identifying the Three Terms in the Argument

Putting the Argument in Standard Form

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on the Death Penalty

Chapter 9: Critical Thinking in Ethics and Moral Decision-Making

What is Moral Reasoning?

Moral Values and Happiness

Conscience and Moral Sentiment

The Development of Moral Reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stage Theory of Moral Development

Carol Gilligan on Moral Reasoning Women

The Development of Moral Reasoning in College Students

Moral Theories: Morality is Relative

Ethical Subjectivism

Cultural Relativism

Moral Theories: Morality is Universal

Utilitarianism (Consequence-Based Ethics)

Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics)

Rights-Based ethics

Virtue Ethics

Moral Arguments

Recognizing Moral Arguments

Constructing Moral Arguments

Evaluating Moral Arguments

Resolving Moral Dilemmas

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Abortion

Chapter 10: Marketing and Advertising

Marketing in a Consumer Culture

Marketing Research

Avoiding Confirmation Bias and Other Errors in Thinking

Marketing Strategies

The SWOT Model

Consumer Awareness of Marketing Strategies

Advertising and the Media

The Role of Advertising in the Media

Product Placement

Television Advertising and Children

Evaluating Advertisements

Common Fallacies in Advertisements

Rhetorical Devices and Misleading Language

Faulty and Weak Arguments

A Critique of Advertising

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on Advertising and Children

Chapter 11: Mass Media

Mass Media in the United States

The Rise of Mass Media

The Media Today

The News Media

Sensationalism and the News as Entertainment

Depth of News Analysis

Bias in the News

Science Reporting

Misrepresentation of Scientific Findings

Government Influence and Bias

Evaluating Scientific Reports

The Internet

Impact of the Internet on Daily Life

Social Networking

The Internet as "The Great Equalizer"

Misuse of the Internet: Pornography and Plagiarism

Media Literacy: A Critical Thinking Approach

Experiencing the Media

Interpreting Media Messages

Critical Thinking Issue: Internet Plagiarism Among College Students

Chapter 12: Science

What is Science?

The Scientific Revolution

Assumptions Underlying Science

Limitations of Science

Science and Religion

The Scientific Method

1. Identify the Problem

2. Develop an Initial Hypothesis

3. Gather Additional Information and Refine the Hypothesis

4. Test the Hypothesis

5. Evaluate the Hypothesis Based on Testing or Experimental Results

Evaluating Scientific Hypotheses

Relevance to the Problem Under Study

Consistency with Well-Established Theories

Simplicity

Testability and Falsifiability

Predictive Power

Distinguishing Between Scientific and Pseudoscientific Hypotheses

Research Methodology and Scientific Experiments

Research Methodology and Design

Field Experiments

Controlled Experiments

Single Group (Pretest-Posttest) Experiments

Evaluating an Experimental Design

Interpreting Experimental Results

Ethical Concerns in Scientific Experimentation

Thomas Kuhn and Scientific Paradigms

Normal Science and Paradigms

Scientific Revolutions and Paradigm Shifts

Critical Thinking Issue: Evolution versus Intelligent Design

Chapter 13: Law and Politics

The Social Contract Theory of Government

The State of Nature

Social Contract Theory

International Law

The Development of Democracy in the United States

Representative Democracy: A Safeguard against the "Tyranny of the Majority"

Liberal Democracy: Protection of Individual Rights

Political Campaigns and Elections

Voting: A Right or a Duty?

The Executive Branch of Government

The Role of the Executive Branch

Executive Orders and National Security

Checks on Executive Power

The Legislative Branch of Government

The Role of the Legislative Branch

Citizens and Legislation

Unjust Laws and Civil Disobedience

The Judicial Branch of Government

The Role of the Judicial Branch

Rules of Evidence

Legal Reasoning and the Doctrine of Legal Precedent

Jury Duty

Critical Thinking Issue: Perspectives on the Use of Drones in Warfare

Solutions Manual

Glossary

Notes

Credits

Index